Comprehensive Country Studies

Comprehensive Country Studies

Bangladesh | Slovakia | Vietnam

Country Study: Bangledesh – Comprehensive Country Studies – Anthony Mrugacz

The People’s Republic of Bangladesh was brought into the modern world on December 16th, 1971, just shy of nine months after declaring it’s independence from West Pakistan. Resembling a premature birth rather than an energetic new state breaking away from West Pakistan, Bangladesh, in reality shares more historical development in common with India, which assisted its independence movement. Looking at the situation in modern Bangladesh one finds the ultimate test case (or basket case).¹ In the eyes of the world community, there is in this sickly child-state, homogeneous demographic and geographic conditions making it a suitable place for attempting experimental development. Additionally, its strategic location, less than or equal to the Falkland Islands, puts it in a neutral position in the politically hierarchy of the world’s balance of power.

Unfortunately this attempt to reverse the situation in Bangladesh has only slowed its demise and magnified its reputation as a paradise for despair. These problems facing Bangladesh are also what brings it worldly fame- re-occuring natural disasters, political turmoil, corrupt governance, lack of resources and undereducated populace, astronomical population density place it 140th out of 177 on the Human Development Index. This level should enable it to achieve honorary membership in the African Union.² Situated between two developing economic powerhouses, China and India, and a neighborhood full of Asian economic tigers, has done little to reverse Bangladesh’s downward spiral. A contrast in logic exists, a nation enjoying such uniformity demographically should be able to turn itself around.

Examining countries like Japan, Korea, and Germany, which rebounded after having their infrastructures destroyed- why is Bangladesh, in all aspects of its modern development, getting from bad to worse? As a colonial offshoot, one may take aim at the British Raj, for leaving Bangladesh in its current state. The development under the British did have two major disadvantages, the selection of a regional command city and economic development. In considering the former, Calcutta was chosen by the British over Dhaka as a regional governmental center, and in the latter case, the region was developed only towards the exportation of agricultural products. The war of
independence ruined the reliability of Bangladesh as an exporter, causing loss of market share at a critical stage in its modern development. The accepting a system of parliamentary democracy has been a disaster, continuous factionalism leading to a multitude of military coups. Bangladesh politics can be portrayed as seven people arguing over who will drive a car stuck up to the doorhandles in mud, with no one wanting to get out and push it. And the military stands by like a tow truck, its only demand for rendering assistance is the surrendering of ownership.

Currently under a state of declared emergency over electoral disputes, a caretaker government (CTG) of unelected officials stand watch as the nation slips away. Bypassing the domestic issues for now, one may ask why assistance from a variety of international players has not assisted Bangladesh out of its poverty cycle? In 2007 Bangladesh ranked 147th in corruption (tied with the Russian federation) and 107th in global competitiveness and ease of doing business.³ Yet in 2005 received 1.321 billion dollars in foreign aid and has over 20,0000 non-governmental organizations involved there.⁴ Typically foreign aid vanishes as it seeps into a corrupt bureaucracy. However, the money pouring in has had a completely opposite effect of one might predict in such a corrupt state, funds are bottle necking. The inefficiency of the civil service has money piling up waiting to be spent.

Concurrently, it has a balance of payments deficit. Imagine a broken tractor, a stack of replacement parts and sufficient tools while a dozen people stand around not knowing how to read the repair manual. On top of this, is anyone of them qualified to drive it once repaired? The John Dewey approach of focusing on one problem until it is cured then tackling the next would not be applicable under current conditions in Bangladesh. However, the major challenge in unclogging this self-inflicted problem would be obtaining stable governance. All Bangladesh’s major political parties that have had a chance to rule, through a waxing and waning cycle as a majority in the unicameral parliament, the Jatia Sangsad. The three historically ruling parties are the Awami League (center-left, liberal, secular), Nationalist Party (BNP center-right, religious conservative, nationalist), and the Jatiya Party (founded by military dictator Hossain Mohammad Ershad).⁵ Rather than accept the election results as the will of the people when voted out of power, the opposition attempts to reclaim power by declaring election fraud and subsequent parliamentary boycotts, mass demonstrations and strikes.

The use of pre-election violence is a staple of Bengali politics through intimidation, bribes, and lethal violence such as bombing. Accusations of corruption is the number one argument put forth in party against party politics, yet no matter the who is in the parliamentary majority, Bangladesh’s transparency rating remains the same. Such antics, along with violent actions by militant groups, has resulted in multiple bloody military coups and counter-coups in the past four decades.⁶ The upcoming elections in December 2008 are a typical example representing Bengali politics. The transfer of power outside of Western democracies has always been a challenge and to resolve this the Bangladesh government instituted a policy in 1996 labeled Non-Party Care-taker Government into the constitution.⁷ In January 2007 parliamentary elections were supposed to be held but the following chain of events occurred resulting in a seemingly legal coup d’état. • Ninety days prior to the elections a non-partisan Caretaker Government, a council of ten led by a Chief Advisor, is appointed to ensure free and fair elections. Parliament is hence
dissolved.

• The Prime Minister Khaleda Zia from BNP allied with right wing Islamic parties handed over power to a Caretaker Government.⁸
• Iajuddin Ahmed, the BNP President, breaking constitutional rules appoints himself Chief Advisor. Continues to appoint the council members then ignores them.
• Opposition parties, led by mainly the Awami League, call for election postponement suspecting BNP control of Caretaker Government intends to distort elections by fraud.
• Elections are boycotted and mass civil unrest, strikes and protest, occur. Ahmed calls in the army to protect elections. International pressure mounts.
• On January 9th, 2008 major election observer groups, mainly the UN and EU, withdraw support for elections.
• Later that day, domestic and international pressures force Ahmed to resign as Chief Advisor of the caretaker Government. Before resigning, Ahmed declares state of emergency under Part XI1.141 of constitution.⁹ Such action requires approval of the prime minister, currently non-existent, giving him unilateral power.
• All basic rights of citizens suspended and curfew declared and enforced by military.¹⁰ Over 40,000 individuals are arrested under the new regime.
• State of emergency lasts 120 days, which can be unilaterally extended by Ahmed giving him the possibility continuing rule as a dictator using the constitution. Under these conditions he is not legally accountable to the parliament or people.
• Bangladesh Election Commission recreated February 2007 to resolve problems with electoral fraud. New elections slated for December 2008.¹¹

Bangladesh is on the road to somewhere and the decision to which route is not far off. Today the political scenario is similar to India and Pakistan, the current generation of leaders are descended or related to the countries founders. If this sense of entitlement to rule and the baggage of differences is not soon resolved the current cycle will continue. A growing problem is the despairity between the urban and rural classes. This secondary bottleneck to development is the educational system in Bangladesh, which intended as a cure only exacerbates the problem. The effort being made results in a brain drain from the villages. Education is pulling individualsout of the of rural areas into modern urban life who are most likely never to return. Such a widening rural/urban gap, compounded with other problems such as porous borders and a disgruntled populace practicing a moderate version of Islam, creates a scenario that one has witnessed before with the Taliban in Afghanistan and the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia. Micro-loans and eco-tourism may be buzz words to the West, but are of very little consequence to a nation of people without hope leaving on a dollar per day.¹² Claims of six percent economic growth rate and a confident middle class are dwarfed by the overall political circus and economic quagmire.

The long-term solution may be found to the East not to the West. The one party states backed by people’s armies such as China, Viet Nam, and Cambodia offer hope as they have modernized their economies and have given their populations a sense of stability, something totally lacking in modern Bengali history. This may cause a loss in human and civil rights but could be the disciplined force to drive Bangladesh forward. Relations with the West have improved with Eastern states that have chosen this single party state model rather than remain in post-colonial structures of government. The secret to Bangladesh’s future may lie somewhere in the following two famous quotes: Leopold Senghor’s “Human rights start at breakfast” and Benjamin Franklin’s “They who can give up essential liberty to obtain a little temporary safety, deserve
neither liberty nor safety.” One is left to conclude the upcoming elections are a toss up using a same-sided coin.

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NOTES – Comprehensive Country Studies– Anthony Mrugacz

1 Ambassador U. Alexis Johnson referred to the emerging nation of Bangladesh as “an international basket case,” while Henry Kissinger argued that at least it need not be “our basket case.” “The Kissinger Tilt.” Time Magazine, 17 January 1972. available from http://www.time.com/time /magazine/article/0,9171,877618,00.html; accessed 26 September 2008.

2 United Nations Developmental Programme. “Human Development Reports”. available from http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/; accessed 27 September 2009.

3 Transparency International. 2008 Corruption Perception Index. accessed 24 September 2008; available from http://www.transparency.org/news_room/in_focus/2008/cpi2008/cpi_2008_table.

4 The World Factbbok. Bangladesh. Central Intelligence Agency. available from https://www.cia .gov/ library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bg.htmlaccessed 24 September 2008.

5 Today the Jatiya Party has separated into three separate parties- Ershad, Manju, and Naziur.

6 On August 17th, 2005, over 500 bombs exploded in 300 locations in Bangladesh. The Jama’atul Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB) claimed responsibility and is rumored to have ties to Al Queda. BBC News. Bombs explode across Bangladesh. 17 August 2005. avaialable from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4158478.stm; accessed 25 September 2008.

7 See Appendix II for full text of Chapter IIA, Article 58B.

8 Khaleda Zia in 2006 was rated 33rd out the world’s most powerful 100 women by Forbes Magazine. Forbes Magazine. “The World’s 100 Most Powerful Women.” 31 August 2006. available from http://www.forbes.com/lists/2006/11/06women_Khaleda-Zia_JSK7.html; accessed 26 September 2008.

9 See Appendix I for text.

10 Except the freedom of religion which is exempt under Part Part XI1.141B of the constitution.

11Bangladesh Election Commission. accessed 25 September 2008; available from http://www.ecs.gov.bd/ English/.

12 “Visit Bangladesh…. Before the tourists come”, is the current slogan of the board of tourism. http://www.bangladeshtourism.gov.bd

APPENDIX I – Comprehensive Country Studies – Anthony Mrugacz

PART IXA EMERGENCY PROVISIONS
141A. Proclamation of Emergency (1) If the President is satisfied that a grave emergency exists in which the security or
economic life of Bangladesh, or any part thereof, is threatened by war or external aggression or internal disturbance, he may
issue a Proclamation of Emergency:
[Provided that such Proclamation shall require for its validity the prior counter signature of the Prime Minister.]
(2) A Proclamation of Emergency-
(a) may be revoked by a subsequent Proclamation;
(b) shall be laid before Parliament;
(c) shall cease to operate at the expiration of one hundred and twenty days, unless before the expiration of that period
it has been approved by a resolution of Parliament:
Provided that if any such Proclamation is issued at a time when Parliament stands dissolved or the dissolution of
Parliament takes place during the period of one hundred and twenty days referred to in sub-clause (c), the
Proclamation shall cease to operate at the expiration of thirty days from the date on which Parliament first meets
after its re-constitution, unless before that expiration of the meets after its re-constitution, unless before that
expiration of the said period of thirty days a resolution approving the Proclamation has been passed by Parliament.
(3) A Proclamation of Emergency declaring that the security of Bangladesh, or any part thereof, is threatened by war or
external aggression or by internal disturbance may be made before the actual occurrence of war or any such aggression or
disturbance if the President is satisfied that there is imminent danger thereof.
141B. Suspension of provisions of certain articles during emergencies While a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation,
nothing in articles 36, 37, 38, 39, 40 and 42 shall restrict the power of the State to make any law or to take any executive
action which the State would, but for the provisions contained in Part III of this Constitution, be competent to make or to
take, but any law so made shall, to the extent of the incompetence, cease to have effect as soon as the Proclamation ceases
to operate, except as respects things done or omitted to be done before the law so ceases to have effect.
141C. Suspension of enforcement of fundamental right during emergencies (1) While a Proclamation of Emergency is in
operation, the President may, [on the written advice of the Prime Minister, by order], declare that the right to move any
court for the enforcement of such of the rights conferred by Part III of this Constitution as may be specified in the order, and
all proceedings pending in any court for the enforcement of the right so specified, shall remain suspended for the period
during which the Proclamation is in force or for such shorter period as may be specified in the order.
(2) An order made under this article may extend to the whole of Bangladesh or any part thereof.
(3) Every order made under this article shall, as soon as may be, be laid before Parliament.]

APPENDIX II – Comprehensive Country Studies – Anthony Mrugacz

CHAPTER IIA NON-PARTY CARE TAKER GOVERNMENT
58B. Non-Party Care-taker Government (1) There shall be a Non-Party Care-taker Government during the period from the
date on which the Chief Adviser of such government enters upon office after Parliament is dissolved or stands dissolved by
reason of expiration of its term till the date on which a new Prime Minister enters upon his office after the constitution of
Parliament.
(2) The Non-Party Care-taker Government shall be collectively responsible to the President.
(3) The executive power of the Republic shall, during the period mentioned in clause (1), be exercised, subject to the
provisions of article 58D(1), in accordance with this Constitution, by or on the authority of the Chief Adviser and shall be
exercised by him in accordance with the advice of the Non-Party Care-taker Government.
(4) The provisions of article 55(4), (5) and (6) shall (with the necessary adaptations) apply to similar matters during the
period mentioned in clause (1).
58C. Composition of the Non-Party Care-taker Government, appointment of Advisers, etc. (1) Non-Party Care-taker
Government shall consist of the Chief Adviser at its head and not more than ten other Advisors, all of whom shall be
appointed by the President.
(2) The Chief Adviser and other Advisers shall be appointed within fifteen days after Parliament is dissolved or stands
dissolved, and during the period between the date on which Parliament is dissolved or stands dissolved and the date on
which the Chief Adviser is appointed, the Prime Minister and his cabinet who were in office immediately before Parliament
was dissolved or stood dissolved shall continue to hold office as such.
(3) The President shall appoint as Chief Adviser the person who among the retired Chief Justices of Bangladesh retired last
and who is qualified to be appointed as an Adviser under this article:
Provided that if such retired Chief Justice is not available or is not willing to hold the office of Chief Adviser, the President
shall appoint as Chief Adviser the person who among the retired Chief Justices of Bangladesh retired next before the last
retired Chief Justice.
(4) If no retired Chief Justice is available or willing to hold the office of Chief Advise, the President shall appoint as Chief
Adviser the person who among the retired Judges of the Appellate Division retired last and who is qualified to be appointed
as an Adviser under this article:
Provided that if such retired Judge is not available or is not willing to hold the office of Chief Adviser, the President shall
appoint as Chief Adviser the person who among the retired Judges of the Appellate Division retired next before the last such
retired Judge.
(5) If no retired judge of the Appellate Division is available or willing to hold the office of Chief Adviser, the President
shall, after consultation, as far as practicable, with the major political parties, appoint the Chief Adviser from among
citizens of Bangladesh who are qualified to be appointed as Advisers under this article.
(6) Notwithstanding anything contained in this Chapter, if the provisions of clauses (3), (4) and (5) cannot be given effect
to, the President shall assume the functions of the Chief Adviser of the Non-Party Care-taker Government in addition to his
own functions under this Constitution.
(7) The President shall appoint Advisers from among the persons who are-
1. qualified for election as members of parliament;
2. not members of any political party or of any organisation associated with or affiliated to any political party;
3. not, and have agreed in writing not to be, candidates for the ensuing election of members of parliament;
4. not over seventy-two years of age.
(8) The Advisers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Chief Adviser.
(9) The Chief Adviser or an Adviser may resign his office by writing under his hand addressed to the President.
(10) The Chief Adviser or an Adviser shall cease to be Chief Adviser or Adviser if he is disqualified to be appointed as such
under this article.
(11) The Chief Adviser shall have the status, and shall be entitled to the remuneration and privileges, of a Prime Minister
and an Adviser shall have the status, and shall be entitled to the remuneration and privileges, of a Minister.
(12) The Non-Party Care-taker Government shall stand dissolved on the date on which the prime Minister enters upon his
office after the constitution of new parliament.
58D. Functions of Non-Party Care-taker Government (1) The Non-Party Care-taker Government shall discharge its
functions as an interim government and shall carry on the routine functions of such government with the aid and assistance
of persons in the services of the Republic; and, except in the case of necessity for the discharge of such functions its shall
not make any policy decision.
(2) The Non-Party Care-taker Government shall give to the Election Commission all possible aid and assistance that may be
required for bolding the general election of members of parliament peacefully, fairly and impartially.
58E. Certain provisions of the Constitution to remain ineffective Notwithstanding anything contained in articles 48(3),
141A(1) and 141C(1) of the Constitution, during the period the Non-Party Care-taker government is functioning, provisions
in the constitution requiring the President to act on the advice of the Prime Minister or upon his prior counter-signature shall
be ineffective.”]

My efforts are towards writing reviews poliyical science for you, the people of Earth, to read and explore on this Comprehensive Country Studies – Anthony Mrugacz webpage. One may continue enjoying this website’s efforts by receiving free updates by subscibing here. Additionally, sponsoring this unique websiteby a donation is also very affordable at less than ten dollars ($10.00) a year.

BIBLIOGRAPHY –Comprehensive Country Studies – Anthony Mrugacz

Ahmed, Anis.. Bangladeshis vote in “gateway to democracy” poll. Reuters, 4 August 2008. accessed 25 September 2008; avaialable from http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/DHA192978.htm. Bangladesh Election Commission. accessed 25 September 2008; available from http://www.ecs.gov.bd/English/.

Bangladesh Tourism. available from http://www.bangladeshtourism.gov.bd/; accessed 26 September 2008.BBC News. Bombs explode across Bangladesh. 17 August 2005. avaialable from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4158478.stm; accessed 25 September 2008.

Constitution of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh. available from http://www.pmo.gov.bd/constitution/index.htm; accessed 25 September 2008.

CyberMetics Lab. Rank of Universities by Country. accessed 26 September 2008; available from http://www.webometrics.info/rank_by_country.asp?country=bd.

Forbes Magazine. “The World’s 100 Most Powerful Women.” 31 August 2006. available from http://www.forbes.com/lists/2006/11/06women_Khaleda-Zia_JSK7.html; accesesd 26 September 2008.

International Crisis Group. Restoring Democracy in Bangladesh. Asia Report N°151. 28 April 2008. available from http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=5408&l=1; accessed 25 September 2008.

Jane’s. Terrorism in Bangladesh. 27 January 2005. available from http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/fr/fr050127_1_n.shtml; accessed 27 September 2008.

Liton, Shakhawait. Emergency declared; Iajuddin quits as chief adviser. The Daily Star, 12 January available from http://www.thedailystar.net/2007/01/12/d7011201011.htm; accessed 27 September 2008

Sengupta, Somini. Bangladesh president steps down as government leader. International Herald Tribune, 11 January 2007. accessed 26 September 2008; available from http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/11/news/bangla.php.

Rahman, Waliur. Is Bangladesh heading towards disaster? BBC News Dhaka, 8 January 2008. available from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6241263.stm; accessed 24 September 2008. Transparency International. 2008

Corruption Perception Index. accessed 24 September 2008; available from http://www.transparency.org/news_room/in_focus/2008/cpi2008/cpi_2008_table.

Heitzman, James and Worden, Robert, ed. Bangladesh: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1989. available from http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/; accessed 22 September 2008.

“The Kissinger Tilt.” Time Magazine, 17 January 1972. available from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,877618,00.html; accessed 26 September 2008

The World Factbbok. Bangladesh. Central Intelligence Agency. available from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bg.html accessed 24 September 2008.

Ulph, Stephen. Bangladesh still in denial of terrorism scourge. The Jamestown Foundation. Terrorism Focus Volume 2, Issue 9.12 May 2005. available from http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2369692; accessed 28 September 2008.

United Nations Developmental Programme. “Human Development Reports”. available from http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics/; accessed 27 September 2009.

South Asia Terrorism Portal. Bangladesh Assessment 2008. available from http://www.satp.org/ satporgtp/countries/bangladesh/; accessed 25 September 2008.

My efforts are towards writing reviews poliyical science for you, the people of Earth, to read and explore on thisComprehensive Country Studies – Anthony Mrugacz webpage. One may continue enjoying this website’s efforts by receiving free updates by subscibing here. Additionally, sponsoring this unique websiteby a donation is also very affordable at less than ten dollars ($10.00) a year.

Country Study: Slovakia – Comprehensive Country Studies – Anthony Mrugacz

“Old habits of inertia pose massive obstacles to change.”₁

The Christmas of 1991 brought the unexpected collapse of USSR. The rejoicing, would however, be overshadowed by a socio­economic hangover throbbing in the former Soviet satellites of Eastern Europe.₂ After decades of imbibing on the lies of working towards socialism,
the bottle had run dry. Many of the newly democratized states’ populations had only known success in modern human development in the areas of education, industrialization, urbanization, and health care under the imposed Marxist­Leninist system. Democracy and liberal economic policies based on the individual were not only foreign but for decades labeled as detrimental to the working class. The expectations of what government’s role in society was, though socialist, provided more for the people than the previous centuries of political systems in the region. As each nation struggled to find a vector for the future, the choice in Western eyes seemed obvious­ create democratic republics and a liberal free­market economies. Is it correct to expect such a change over without understanding the viewpoint of those under going this transition?

Without a variety of choices, the direction was set for the future. However, the determining at hich velocity to pursue new policies became the complicating issue. Originally the goals were not if these new states planned to switch to a Western­style political, economic, and social
system, but rather to what degree when considering how capable given the entirety resources available. as the heart of Europe. The long standing and strong sense of national identity over a millennium worth of struggle finally place it in command of its future. Geographically and historically it has experienced both Eastern and Western European cultural influences. This current positioning in Europe has Forbes magazine bestowing the title, “The world’s next Hong Kong or Ireland”.₃

Unfortunately, neither sides influence has been an entirely beneficial experience for the Slovaks. Centuries over overseers have definitely honed the defiant nature of the national Slovak character. Now on their own for 17 years, will Slovakia extract the best from what both the East and West have to offer in the path to prosperity? Or will this dichotomy of choice breed indecision leaving Slovakia unable to steer or stop on bumpy road of uncertainty? Always under the influence of outside political forces, one may begin to question how the Slovak Republic’s government will behave on its own.

Rapid change for a society can often lead to a collapse or rebirth. Big bang economic ecovery theories to revive ex­-Socialist economies has produced mixed results. Government officials often resisted such changes out of fear of losing their positions of power as the working
classes had become complacent on the patronage of the state. Fifteen years have passed since the Velvet Revolution in Czechoslovakia offering a unique case study. The separation into two halves was driven by more than nationalistic desires, but also on economic matters. The Czechs were interested in improving economic ties in from the West while the momentum of the Soviet collapse was still fresh. To the east, Slovakia opted for a slower rate of economic change under the guise of keeping state programs in place and lessening the overall burden on the nation’s people. In reality, this reduced rate of change to a liberal economy in Slovakia kept in place state controlled social programs and economic polices was a ploy to keep the populace content while ruling elite remained in power. This choice of state sponsored stability promoted on moral grounds was a path to autocratic policies meeting the needs of a ruling party. No matter which conclusion one arrives at from examining the continuities or changes that have occurred in Slovakia over the past 17 years, positioning ourselves in the Slovak point of view is necessary. Western political scientists did not plant the seeds of the Slovakian state. Therefore, they have to accept the taste of the fruit it bears. Throughout the 20th century, Czechoslovakia was tied together by the policies of outside forces. The Czech point of view has been passed over in this essay in favor of focusing on the evolution of the Slovak Republic.

For the researcher, this has not been detrimental to obtaining data and statistics on the two regions at the state was divided on the political administrative units and boundaries that existed. Unfortunately these records have a down side. The small size of the Slovak nation, 5.4 million, it does not have the resources to convert the all of its data into the English. As the information age takes hold of Slovakia, one can hope the transference of such documents will occur. At this time an obvious starting point would be an analysis of changes in the past (1960) and present (1993) Slovak constitutions. However, a unique political situation determined the creation of the document, so as a staring point will be the drama of the birth of this sovereign nation. Like a bride with newly imagined ideas of what freedom would be after a divorce, the egotistical nature of Slovakian political culture determined the nation’s initial direction on its amicable split from its Bohemian brothers, the Czechs.

Political Culture: Inexperience Shows

The domestic political culture has always played second fiddle in the national song of destiny. For centuries the governmental polices have been written by either a Hungarian, Hapsburg, Czech, or Russian composer. This difficult position placed the traditional role of the ruling factions, not as leadership with a solid power base supported by the will of the people, but as compromising entity focused on its own need to survive. Political maneuvering evolved to keep a status quo of limited autonomy in internal affairs. After twelve centuries of this political balancing act, Slovakia’s ruling elite, in 1993 positioned itself for independence.₄ A decade and a half latter it has yet to be seen if the political culture has matured.

When comparing the domestic political culture from 1991 until today, basically it the same only different external factors have changed. Before the threat of Soviet interference was dismissed by Mikhail Gorbachev, Slovakia, as part of a soviet satellite had to appease Moscow. In 2008, Brussels the European Union’s capital, doles out the regulations. A former member of COMECON and adapting to the European Union mechanism, again finds Slovakian leadership in a partnership as a lesser player in economic decision making. The economic directives and standards for the economy still have weight upon the decisions of the government of Slovakia. The attitude and makeup of the leadership from the 1991 to today remains unchanged. Communists have been replaced by ex­communists. Most top leaders were educated in the field of law and the use of a popular referendum is not used in major decision making. Ideology for a national directive still thrives on the sense of the Slovakian proud national identity. The banner of “socialism with a human face” as a defiance to Soviet control has been substituted by “democracy our own autocratic way” to the displeasure of European Union members. The old communist style attitude of towing the popular party line, then denouncing an ally for political purposes is still a standard practice.

Remarkably changes in the political culture have occurred. Going from a one party system that had a real silent majority, today has a system were any majority necessary to reach a consensus is done so by flirting with alliances. Coalitions are the de facto method of ruling Slovakia. This points to the traditional egotistical nature of Slovakian leadership following its own path. In 1991, a temporary sense of solidarity existed with the Czechs. It took two years for the Slovak leadership to evolve into a coalition of nationalist and ex­communists deciding to go it alone. Though this coalition led the nation to independence, political scientists have analyzed this separation and proposed the following competing reasons.₅

•A two member federation is inherently unstable and stalemates on issues.
•Longstanding hostility.
•The breakdown of other ex­Communist federations created a model for the dissolution.
•Separation was everybody’s second preference.
•Issue of market reforms.
•Czechs did not wish to go on subsidizing Slovakia.

The strange bedfellows, the nationalists and ex­-ommunists, that pushed separation through in 1993 were just the tip of the iceberg for coalitions to come. Once this goal was reached, the convenient partnership evolved in to today’s continuous political promiscuity.
Changing like the weather, slight disagreements and personal interests ignited party swapping, abandonment, and creation of new factions. A few times when a majority party controlled the National Council of the Slovak Republic (Národná rada Slovenskej republiky), party members soon defected. Parliamentary coalitions are formed out of need to have a majority in power not from common ideological policies benefiting the nation. Often it is not uncommon for a party’s leader to leave over a simple disagreement and gather a new group of supporters. Overall the general interests of the country’s leadership is self­serving leading to problems of corruption.₆ The Velvet Divorce, the division of Czechoslovakia into two sovereign states, became the starting point for fragmentation and continuous flux of Slovak political unity.

Political Power: Plenty of Parties for the Players to Choose and Diffuse From

No Slovak president since its separation from the Czechoslovakian Republic has served two consecutive terms.₇ Most elected officials in 1993 at the start of independence were ex­-communists and played off the theme of autonomy for the nation.8 The decades before the break up, nationalism, if displayed by a politician, resulted in dismissal from the political arena and a stint in prison. So as the nation took its first step forward, it did so following the lead of apparatus in the parliament. No great patriotic leader leaped to the forefront, no person of great vision inspired the nation. Soon this facade would evaporate as the reality of now pleasing society focused on those below not above the government.

The leading political power figure in the Slovak Republic is held in the office of the prime minister. This recent history does not displays the swing in policy direction but circus that had become coalition forming. One must keep in mind that these prime ministers were not elected by having their respective party in a parliamentary majority. The layout since 1991 is as follows:

Political Punching: Exposing Dirty Laundry

Reading like a novel, an examination of the first chapter in the prime minister’s office had its share of drama. Vladimír Mečiar election as prime minister was based on his popularity due to a being sentenced to prison for nationalistic tendencies under socialist rule. Winning with only
35% of his party in parliamentary seats his power was based on a coalition. He placed his ally and member of HZDS, Ivan Gašparovič, in the office of presidency which at that time was elected by 3/5 majority vote in the National Council. A scandal involving hidden microphones at the U.S. Embassy had Mečiar calling on Gašparovič to lead the investigation, though no real resolution of the situation took place. This apparently shows the trust the two had for each other, though they were both noted to be corrupt. Both believe in an autocratic state but the extreme levels of Mečiar’s open corruption caused tensions between the two. President Gašparovič viewed the Prime Minister Mečiar moves in the economic sector under privatization of industries and public lands as blatant asset stripping and as detrimental in attracting foreign investors along with
joining the European Union. Verbal attacks developed into a permanent war between them. Mečiar went as far as having Gašparovič ‘s son abducted by Slovak security forces (SIS) then dropped off in Austria in a drunken state where he had a warrant on charges financial fraud. In and out three times, Mečiar also simultaneously held the position of president temporarily for 3 months while prime minister granting controversial pardons in that period. In 1999 he ran for the presidential office, which is now based on direct elections, and lost. His HZDS had won the most parliamentary seats by receiving 27% of the votes (top for the 1998 elections). He then changed the name of the party to L’S­HZDS (People’s Party ­ Movement for a Democratic Slovakia) attempting to change stripes and form a new coalition. In this same period, his former Economy Minister and government colleague Ján Ducký was murdered and the crime has not been solved. Closing this chapter, he lost his bid to again become prime minister to Mikuláš Dzurinda.

Further discussion on the other prime ministers would only emphasize that political infighting is not geared to truly finding a direction for the nation but controlling the state and the benefits to those in power. When interviewed in 2001, Mečiar, response to his autocratic style of governance, high­ level corruption, and political flip­flopping on issues, and the displeasure it created in the EU and NATO, displays a rhetoric that only an professional politician could appreciate. “We have to ask ourselves why such a question arose in the first place. We, after all, were the ones who took a stand against totalitarian power in 1989. We demolished the old value system and established a new one.” It is as if he is taking credit for the collapse of the Soviet Empire in order to validate his behavior. He protested against NATO’s bombing of Kosovo, yet says he is pro­NATO. Further he stated Kosovo independence was illegal and equivalent to Nazi Germany’s seizure of the Sudetenland. Currently on energy issues he has been courting Russia, leading to accusations of Slovakia being a “trojan horse” in its relationship with NATO. Rather than being the heart of Europe and a part of the spirit of cooperation amongst a variety of nations, the Slovak Republic plays a different role. The politic script reads like the a performance of “Greater Tuna”.₁₀

Foreign Policy and Domestic Politics: Follow the Leaders

The past 17 years have been not only a pendulum between autocracy and democracy in the Slovakia’s domestic politic scene, but also modulation in the international arena. Each attempt at reform, be it more liberal or conservative in nature, allows the opposition to place
blame on the failures of the coalition in power and lead the next flock of parties. Going from a one party system to fifteen has not been easy going. Slovakian foreign policy has a tendency to ping pong in international affairs based on the conditions domestically. A unanimous long term
policy for the country’s direction is non­existent. At first in 1991, united with the Czechs in breaking away from the Soviet Union a vector was set. Two years later Slovakia changed course by separation into a sovereign state. Sovereignty based on populism gave way to autocratic rule
under Vladimír Mečiar, open government corruption, and a stagnant economy lacking outside investment. This limited foreign policy options as Slovakia needed to please the West’s developmental private and public sectors. Under, Mikuláš Dzurinda, the economy and anti­ corruption measures improved but not enough. With Putin’s reviving of the Russian federation from the ashes of Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies, Slovakian politicians are shifting its eyes to the east. Slovakia is following the banner of Putin’s“democracy in our own way” in justifying its behavior and of course will result in much friction with the European Union. The domestic virus of political party promiscuity will remain a problem until a strong
political leader emerges. The need is for a autocratic­flavored strong leader to eliminate the corruption. This open up its options in foreign policy. The West would likely look the other way on a reduction of democratic values in order to secure a better investment climate. To the east, a semi­autocratic leader would please the Russian Federation by both having less Western influence in the region in terms of political ideology and the ease of negotiating with a single political leader matching Russia historical ruling style. Is this choice for a a semi­dictatorial state
desirable?

In view of Slovakia’s economic progress, though respectable, it is falling short of meeting expectations internationally as well as domestically. A turn to the past may be the only viable option. A climate that is more pro­business is a necessity for fertilizing domestically grown democracy. Anti­corruption attempts in their fragmented alliance system has not accomplished its goals. To claim corruption is the main impediment to foreign policy in international affairs, one must first see not only the domestic levels but the attitude. Recent polls by Transparency International­ Slovakia, shows citizens considering corruption as secondary problem.₁₁ Since 1991 this has been evident. Polls from then placed fears of domination by a foreign power high on the list, 56% stated this would come from the U.S., 30% by Russia. A remarkable amount preferred communism (32%), and many hope for a continuation of intense state sponsored social programs (67%).₁₂ Economic growth needs adaptation to the global system, but unemployed or underpaid Slovakian citizen has different ideas on the how their lives should function.₁₃
To justify stating domestic problems guide compound foreign policy one must understand just how wide spread this disease is prevalent in Slovakia?

There are fifteen political parties registered with six in parliament. In the past two decades close to ten parties have dissolved, split, or absorbed one another. As in Russia’s recent history, such a variety of parties causes not a stalemate, but more of a political wheel spin. Energy is wasted politically that could be focused on the nation’s issues. Slovakia could become the Egypt of the 21st century, playing off the politics of the Russian Federation and the European Union. In the minds of Russians, one often hears the Great Patriotic War ended only yesterday. Overlaying this concept on the mental state of the Slovaks after centuries of Austro­Hungarian rule and decades of Soviet domination, sovereignty started only moments ago. The political maturity of Slovakia has not evolved enough, nor does it have the resources, to solving its problems. Until this can be overcome, factions will abuse the domestic political system as the momentum from the reemergence of the region evaporates after the Soviet collapse. If the Slovak Republic cannot completely take command of its future on the world stage , will it prefer to relinquish more of its sovereignty to the European Union in obtaining solutions to its situation? Or will it continue to muddle about, playing with the West, rather than obtaining needed capital resources and expertise? When Eastern Europe and the Balkans were “liberated” under the Wilson Doctrine, the West had high hopes for its success. Slowly these new democracies backslid in not­so­democratic semi­corrupt rule, expecting the same a century later
is not so implausible. A shift to a defiant and autocratic state would place the Slovak Republic in need of a patron. An obvious choice may be its last liberator, the Russians. However, many changes have taken place in the Slovak Republic’s governmental structure to provide assistance to
a more politically open and transparent state. A side by comparison displays the major change from a worker to citizen based society.

The comparative list offers an insight to the modernization of Slovak society. The 1991 Ministries are Soviet standards from the 1930’s during Stalin’s implementation of 5­ year economic plans. Today the expansion of services towards society demonstrate a major ideological shift. Under the influential policies of the former Soviet Union, Marxist­Leninism would easily resolve all of society’s problems, freeing mankind to evolve. A Westerner would initially herald such a ministerial structure as a way forward. Unfortunately these services started from point zero and need funding. The challenge today for Slovakia is offering these services without incurring massive foreign debt. During the socialist era, oversight was done by organizations directed by the Supreme Party Organs. In the spirit of democracy the National Slovak Council has created many scrutinizing oversight committees to hopefully regulate the transparent operation of government bodies.₁₇ Unfortunately, corruption is evident in these new departments as citizens have reported having to pay for services, such as health care, that are supposed to be free.₁₈

Socio­Economics and Political Voices of Citizenry: A Tangled Umbilical Cord

Obviously the switch to a multi­party system is always for the better in regards to the citizens access to politics. With the bickering politicians playing a populist game of push­me-pullme₁₇ for the nation’s direction, are the citizens really better off than under socialist times? The general
theme of changes in the economic sector have had political repercussions. Under Western recommendations a rapid change in the economy was the solution, but the harmful side effects of initial inflation and unemployment, does not put food on the table. Lacking transparency has also
meant reduce foreign investment as compared to the bordering states (except the Ukraine). The leadership of Slovakia displayed outward empathy at keeping state control of industry and the economy. Again this was a ploy as they siphoned off the nation’s wealth through illegal
privatization deals. The average Slovakian probably never considered the future when celebrating the Velvet Revolution and not a clue to what life would be like after the Velvet Divorce. In the socio­economic sectors there have been changes but also statistics that have remained unchanged.₁₉ From 1991 to 2006 the population increased slightly from 5.24 million to 5.388 million, education spending as a percentage of GDP remains at 4%, and persons living below the poverty level, also unchanged at 2%. Overall leading economic indicators have also shown major improvements. To help analyze the relationship between socio­economic conditions the following chart has been created. The prime ministers office, which yields the most power in the government is placed in relationship to a major characteristic during that year to show when
the country’s direction changed and possibly why.

Of interest to the average working citizen, unemployment decreased and wages kept ahead of the consumer price index. In regards to benefits for the business sector, industrial output is up and the prime bank lending rate down. The trade balance show significant variation. Further
analysis would be necessary to locate the factors, be it political or economic, internal or external factors. During the years of a corrupt administration the trade deficit shot up, surely influencing a swing to the West for a solution. When a westward leaning pro­European Union prime minister held office, the unemployment is obviously high. After 6 years at or above 14% unemployment, the swing to a prime minister who’s rhetoric mimics his eastern neighbors. The difficulty of meeting EU standards on such a small nation are understandable. Possibly the same amount of economic benefits associating with the Russia Federation is possible sans the burden demands in political and socio­economic requirements imposed by the European Union. The increase in social benefits costs may have two causes, more efficient bureaucracy or old habits of borrowing. The new ministries involved providing social services may be better at identifying those at risk and attempting to assist those in need. On the other hand, as in the 1970s during oil shocks, many Soviet bloc nations borrowed heavily to keep inflation on consumer commodities low and the populace content. The level of corruption in the Slovak government would most likely support a “rob Peter to pay Paul” for short term funding of social programs. The record for human rights improvement and political access for the citizens has been very good. From 2000 until 2004 the level of Voice and Accountability Scale­ the ability to participate in political, social and economic processes, tripled. Comparatively in the Russian Federation ,as well as the United States, it has declined. Political prisoners and abuse as known under Communist rule has disappeared. Slovakia’s government also reports no major human rights abuses.20 However, there are a few blemishes to the record, as most cases involve the underpaid police forces and the prison system.₂₁

Today your political and human rights are well guaranteed by the Slovak Republic’s constitution if: a) Your free speech does not say anything
bad about the government. b) Your are not of Romani descent. A hold over from the Communist era, Romani women are still encouraged to be sterilized. This discrimination against the Romani population (1.8%) has been longstanding. The Communist offered financial compensation, today Romani woman are assisted by medical authorities who apply pressure to have this procedure. A reduction in social benefits for the poor
and underprivileged also affect them.₂₂ Recent legislation reduces welfare benefits as only a temporary measure and designed as a motivational program to discourage people becoming dependent on the system. Other poor treatment of minorities has occurred in Slovak history. As a Nazi protectorate two­thirds of the Jewish population were exported to Germany at a cost of five dollars each. Today abundant articles in the Slovak Republic’s constitution aim to protect minority rights focuson eliminating this dark blemish from the past. The Jewish population in Slovakia today is numbered at 3,000. Unfortunately there are 500 active members Neo­Nazis with an estimated 4,000 sympathizers.₂₃

Education and the Economy: Slow Changes

Slovakia’s higher education has shown some improvements but is still in the shadow of Soviet mentality. Though university credits in Slovakia are now transferable to other European Union institutions, recent analysis has reported the need for change in several key areas. There has been an increase in fields offered but overall an mid­29th century style of education that is not preparing graduates for the modern job. The idea of focusing on the students needs still has not taken hold. The suggested improvements for the promoting creative thinking in college level
students would be a needed change to overall Slovak thinking about government’s role in society. Since gaining independence the spending of education has remained 4% of the GDP. In public schools a choice is offered between religion and ethics classes, a remarkable change over
Communist times.

The economy, geared originally to fit into the Soviet COMECON model, now is boomingwith EU association.24 Most Slovakians work in the service sector and the investment climate is promoted as positive, even from the US State Department.25 But it is difficult to find a balanced review of the reality there. Being promoted as a safe and wise investment location, but is this for the best?26 With a multi­party system of alliances can one predict the mood swing of policies to the left or right? Does investment under the current multi­party semi­corrupt government really promote democracy? Investors are motivated by profit but so it seems are Slovak government officials.₂₇ Though it only takes 25 days to start a business there, most industries are still owned by the government (51% share holders), yet run by private management. Major industries still focus on 20th century production. The current government does not promote competition in sectors it controls, such as energy and telecommunications. The new Prime Minster Fico recently raised minimum wages by 10%, how soon before it leans for more control over private investment there?²⁸ The boom that the economy experienced was based on basic modern technological improvements introduced after the failed Soviet system. Any changes introduced would have improved the economy. Introducing normal missing elements into a crumbling system such as information technologies and a tourist industry are not fundamental changes towards improving an economy. There does a exist a liberal labor market and an across the board 19% tax rate, but the government’s intentions are short­term as to sneak over the bar meeting European Union requirements.

Constitution: A guiding light (but only when lit).

The 1960 and 1993 Constitutions both are designed to meet the government’s overall needs. Political and human rights went from being labeled as those for a worker to those of a citizen. The 1960 edition was a cookie cutter Soviet model and the 1993 version was created behind closed doors, does resembles a Western European parliamentary democratic republic. Its birth was assisted by parliamentary approval not by popular referendum. Voting, political rights, procedures, obligations, and power distribution, etc. in both constitutions have nothing that can
be considered unique or gifts to the world. The election of the president went from parliamentary approval to popularly elected. The 3/5 majority to be voted in was mirrored the 3/5 needed for the president’s removal. The conditions for removal were considered arbitrary and used as a political tool and were hence modified.₂₉

Conclusion

One begins to wonder if Eastern Europe is really European on or a hybrid mixed with Asiatic influence. The trend to start with a democracy, drift in chaos, and stabilize under autocratic rule is a repetitive theme. Do the Slavs and other central Asian tribes who settled the
region have a propensity for strong centralized leadership or when they individual have enough freedom that they do not care what happens outside their personal realms. The Slovaks existed as a nation for centuries under foreign rule and maybe their lives were content to an acceptable degree. When a region only knows one type of reality, how can they move forward towards our expectations? Their analysis of the United States may conclude that we are an anomaly , having developed oceans away in a land full of resources and opportunities. Placing ideology as a basic framework for a society seems logical, but as it was once said, “Human rights start at breakfast”. The average Slovak tolerates what we do not find acceptable, less we forget we are not in their shoes. A recent art show at the U.S. Embassy in Bratislava, an author’s book and the works of 17 Slovak artists from current and communists times were displayed. The book titles, “”Dreams Intersect Reality”, would be a theme for life in today’s Slovak Republic.₃₀

Predictions

A Slovak Republic citizen currently earns half of the European Union average. at the current rate of growth it will take approximately a decade to be equal. Disregarding inflation, this could be accomplished by the Slovakians on their own. However, it will take the EU tugging on
Slovakia’s boot straps for them to grudgingly reach Euro­standards in other areas of society. So it the short term, things will be on the current path. Long term predictions will be based on how long the Europeans will tolerate Slovak obstinate to change. The rise of of Russia will continue, though under a semi­autocratic condition. as a transparent democracy is not necessary for exponential growth. Histories old bonds and a balance of power between East and West may be a reason for Slovakia to leave the European Union. They are at a point where relinquishing their autonomy is near impossible, but by being more neutral will play on nationalistic tendencies to the delight of the ruling elite. Instead of the next Hong Kong, we one may see the Slovak Republic as the next Switzerland. The ability of the corrupt politicians to influence the private sector could offer a haven to escape European regulations. Switzerland was once associated with mysterious bank accounts and this could be an outlet for those Russians in the East needing a playground and a safe investment climate. Without the foreign direct investment needed by the
Slovaks and ability to conform to transparency, the influx of petrol­rubles from the East could be a long term alternative. Though there is some moving forward on the overall scorecard of the Slovak Republic, there exists a major impediment to change, the partnership for society’s
development involving the some sort of intellectual class that is concerned with the people’s needs. As under Communist control, the government is to involved with the choices in everyday society.

Diasporic Reactions

The total world population is 7.4 million people, 2million of those living in North America. An effort was made to find interviews and American­ based newspapers to analyze how Slovak descendants reacting to the changes that have occurred. Unfortunately, online and library sources yielded no usable material. Most North American Slovakians arrived here during the upheavals in the late 19th century for the region’s burst of nationalism. Inclusion of the viewpoints of those who had not experienced Soviet oppression or the recent changes from inside Slovakia’s could have been an interesting addition.


Appendixes

Table 1 – Comprehensive Country Studies – Anthony Mrugacz

List of Current Political Parties in the Slovak Republic

1. Hnutie za Demokratické Slovensko ­ HZDS Movement for a Democratic Slovakia

2. Strana Demokratickej L’avice ­ SDL Party of the Democratic Left
3. Magyar Koalíció Pártja ­ MK Hungarian Coalition Party
4. Együttélés­ Coexistence
5. Magyar Polgári Párt ­ MPP Hungarian Civic Party
6. Krest’ansko­demokratické hnutie na Slovensku ­ KDK Christian Democratic Movement
7. Slovenská demokratická a krestanská únia­ SDKÚ Slovak Democratic and Christian Union
8. Slovenská národná strana ­ SNS Slowak National Party
9. Aliancia Nového Obcana ­ New Civic Alliance (Liberal Party of Slovakia)
10. Liberálna Mládez Slovenska ­ Youth Organization of Aliancia Nového Obcana
11. Strana Smer ­ Direction Party
12. Komunistická strana Slovenska ­ KSS Communist party of Slovakia
13. Obcianska konzervativna strana ­ OKS Civic Conservative Party
14. Slobodne Forum ­ Free Forum
15. Slovenská Pospolitost

Table –Comprehensive Country Studies – Anthony Mrugacz

1. Mandate and Immunity Committee
2. Committee on the Incompatibility of Functions
3. Committee on European Affairs
4. Constitutional and Legal Affairs Committee
5. Committee on Finance, Budget and Currency
6. Committee on Economic Policy
7. Committee on Agriculture, Environment and Nature Protection
8. Committee on Public Administration and Regional Development
9. Committee on Social Affairs and Housing
10. Committee on Health Care
11. Committee on Defense and Security
12. Foreign Affairs Committee
13. Committee on Education, Youth, Science and Sports
14. Committee on Culture and Media
15. Committee on Human Rights, Minorities and the Status of Women
16. Special Control Committee for the Control of Activities of the National Security Authority
17. Special Control Committee for the Control of Activities of the Slovak Intelligence Service
18. Special Control Committee for the Control of the Activities of the Military Intelligence Service
19. Committee for the Review of Decisions of the National Security Authority
31 National Slovak Council. “Committees­ Status and Powers:. Available at; http://www.nrsr.sk/default.aspx?
sid=vybory/kompetencie; Internet: Accessed 18 April 2008.

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Notes – Comprehensive Country Studies – Anthony Mrugacz

1 Zbigniew Brzezinski. New York Times. “Will The Soviet Empire Self­destruct?; Four Scenarios forFailure”; available from http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.htmlres=950DE1DA113DF935A15751C0A96F948260&scp= 1&sq=Zbigniew+Brzezinski+Old+habits+of+inertia+pose+massive+obstacles+to+change.&st=nyt; Internet; accessed 10 April 2008.

2 In 1989, Slovakia (as part of Czechoslovakia, along with Bulgaria, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania, owed the West 100 billion US dollars. Leon Aron. The Heritage Foundation. “Gorbachev’s Brest­ Litovsk: The Kremlin’s Grand Compromise in Eastern Europe”; available from http://www.heritage.org/Research/Europe/bg724.cfm; internet accessed; 16 April 2008.

3 2006 Investment Climate Statement­ Slovakia, Available from; http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/ifd/2006/62032.htm; Internet accessed; 19 April 2008

4 On 25 November 1992, the Members of the Federal Assembly approved the government bill of the Constitutional Act on the Demise of the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic as of 31 December 1992. National Council of the Slovak Republic History. Available from; http://www.nrsr.sk/default.aspx? sid=nrsr/historia; Internet; accessed 18 April 2008.

5 John Elster. European Journal of Sociology. “Conflict Resolution in an Emerging Multi Lateral World ­Transition, constitution­making and separation in Czechoslovakia.”; Available from; http://www.tamilnation.org/conflictresolution/countrystudies/czech.htm; Internet; accessed on 2 April 2008

6 A survey of domestic companies publicized last year by Slovak daily Hospodarske Noviny mentioned the shady privatization of state companies and their politically motivated subsidizing as the main sources of corruption. IPS.SLOVAKIA: Corruption Haunts Governing Coalition. Available from; http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=41796; Internet; accessed 19 April 2008.

7 As head of state the president of Slovakia office wields little executive power. The constitutional laws concerning the president have been modified in the past 17 years.

8 Vladimír Mečiar’s Movement for a Democratic Slovakia (HZDS) became the leading party on the concept of the fairness of demands for autonomy. Available from; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Slovakia#Independent_Slovakia; Internet; Accessed on 20 March 2008,

9 List of Current Political Parties in the Slovak Republic located in Table 1 of the Appendix.

10 Greater Tuna is a world renown and popular modern comedy about Texas’ third smallest town, where the Lion’s Club is too liberal and Patsy Cline never dies. A satire on small town politics it is eye opening view to human nature. Available from;http://www.greatertuna.com/
gt/greater.htm Interent; accessed on 20 April 2008.

11 Transparency International Slovakia. Available from; http://www.transparency.sk/english/; Internet
accessed; 19 April 2008.

12David P. Forsythe, ed. , Human Rights in the New Europe : Problems and Progress. (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 113.

13The history of 20 Century Slovakia human rights took a back seat to economics. Forsythe,
Human Rights in the New Europe:Problems and Progress., 86.

14 Corruption in Slovakia ­ Results of Diagnostic Surveys. World Bank and the United States Agency for International Development. Available from; www.tur.vlada.gov.sk/data/files/2764.doc; (accessed April 19th 2008)

15 Government Structure of Communist Czechoslovakia. Available from; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_structure_of_Communist_Czechoslovakia; Internet; Accessed 17 April 2008.

16 National Council of the Slovak Republic. “List of Institutions”. Available from; http://www.nrsr.sk/default.aspx?sid=nrsr/historia (accessed 18 April 2008)

17 A complete list of Slovak National council Oversight Committees is listed in table 2 of the Appendix.

18 Corruption in Slovakia ­ Results of Diagnostic Surveys. World Bank and the United States Agency for International Development. Available from; http://www.tur.vlada.gov.sk/data/files/2764.doc; (accessed 19 April 2008).

19 Examining the statistical changes affecting the the average Slovakian will be using the International Monetary Fund’s Database, not for accuracy but consistency of methodology.

20 U.S. Department of State. ”Country Reports on Human Rights Practices­ 2006.” http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78838.htm (accessed April 14th, 2008).

21 U.S. Congressional record. “Slovakia Deserves NATO Membership.” 105th Congress, 1st Session. http://www.house.gov/mica/fs061197.htm (accessed April 18th, 2008)

22 Roma Press Agency, http://www.rpa.sk/clanok.aspx?o=zc&n=1360&l=en, (accessed April 14th, 2008)

23 U.S. Department of State. ”Country Reports on Human Rights Practices­ 2006.”http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78838.htm (accessed April 14th, 2008).

24 Tamsin Smith, “Slovakia’s economy enjoys EU boom”. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4506109.stm,BBC News, (accessed April18th, 2008).

25U.S. Department of State. “2006 Investment Climate Statement – Slovakia,” http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/ifd/2006/62032.htm (accessed April 10th, 2008)

26 Index of Economic Freedoms. “The Slovak Republic.” http://www.heritage.org/
index/country.cfm?id=SlovakRepublic. (accessed April 12th, 2008)

27 Economist, “Poor government in Central Europe”, http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=E1_STJRRTS, (accessed April 22nd, 2008)

28 EU Buisness. “Slovak economic boom, 2009 Euro Entry Ontrack.”http://www.eubusiness.com, /Finance/slovakia­economy.62/ (accessed April20th, 2008).

29 Article 106 . 1993 Slovak Republic Consitution.

30 Embassy of the United States­ Bratislava, Slovakia. “Embassy Supports Greater Exposure of Communist­ era Slovak Art,” Embassy Events, http://slovakia.usembassy.gov/embassy­ supports­greater­exposure­ of­communist­era­slovak­art­september­19­2007.html (accessed March 12th, 2008)

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RomNews Network Community. http://www.romnews.com/community/modules.php?op=modload&name=News&file=article&sid=1275. (accessed April 16th, 2008).

Seventeen Moments in Soviet History. “End of the Soviet Union.” http://soviethistory.org/index.php (accessed February 14th, 2008).

Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic. http://portal.statistics.sk/showdoc.do?docid=359 (accessed April 20th, 2008).

The Guide to the Slovak Republic. “An Overview of the Major Events in Slovak History.” Slovakia.org, http://www.slovakia.org/history­summary.htm (accessed February 4th, 2008).

Transparency International Slovakia. ”TI acts in anti­corruption efforts even on local level via national chapters.” http://www.transparency.sk/english/about.htm, (accessed April 12th,2008).

U.S. Department of State. “2006 Investment Climate Statement – Slovakia.” http://www.state.gov/e/eeb/ifd/2006/62032.htm (accessed April 10th, 2008).

U.S. Department of State. ”Country Reports on Human Rights Practices­ 2006.” http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78838.htm (accessed April 14th, 2008).

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Country Study: Viet Nam – Comprehensive Country Studies – Anthony Mrugacz

Reviewing Karl Marx’s Revolutionary scorecard from the 20th century one finds very few active players on the roster. Non-industrialized East Asian nations, where communism was not supposed to work, have defied theory and survived as hybrid states. The Socialist Republic of
Vietnam has been evolving into such an enigma. The economic opening up of a one-party state has allowed new problems to seep in. Vietnam has always lived in the shadow of fear of her behemoth neighbor to the north, China. The implemented changes in the centrally controlled market economy has in the past few decades followed those of their communist brethren to the north. The benefits and problematic issues will be the focus of this country study.

Currently the government leaders are 66 year old President Nguyen Minh Triet (a ceremonial chief of state) and 59 year old Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung (head of government ) of the National Assembly (Quoc Hoi). The National Assembly voted them in on June 27th, 2006. After winning control over the northern half from the French in 1954 and overrunning the south in 1975, the Vietnamese Communist party (VCP) is still firmly in control. The civilian government may run the day to day operations but the VCP cadres parallel it at all levels. Prime minister Dung is the 4th ranking member in the VCP, President Triet was the former party leader in Ho Chi Mih City (Saigon). Since 2001, the general secretary of the VCP’s 14 member politburo is 68 year old Nong Duc Manh. Gen Sec Nong is the only of the three leaders who attended a university in Soviet Russia.

Vietnam constitutionally functions as a traditional Socialist Republic. The main characteristics being; communist party given a central leadership role, the 492 seat unicameral National Assembly as the highest representative organ, and the executive branch wielding governmental power. The communist party is official name, Vietnamese Fatherland Front, yet oddly lost 42 assembly seats to non-party candidates. The current constitution, Vietnam’s third, was adopted in The last amendments in 2001 were to Article 2, which now allows the National Assembly to hold votes of confidence on its elected leaders, and Article 16 officially recognizes foreign investment as part of governmental economic planning. Unfortunately, these modern adaptations have not affected the citizen’s rights, as individual obligations are still to national duties over personal liberty. The hybrid civil code system, based on communist legal theory and French civil
law system, has not accepted International Court of Justice jurisdiction.¹

The communist ideology as a front for true nationalist intentions had succeeded in uniting Vietnam. However, with a population of over 86 million concentrated on 128 thousand square miles, it is taking more than theory to insure its survival. The population density is 655 persons per square mile, 100 times the US average, compacted in an area the size of the State of New Mexico. To overcome an undernourished and impoverished society, in 1986 the government instituted a policy of economic reforms called Doi Moi (New Changes). One may suspect after seeing that Deng Xiaoping’s Four Modernization in 1978 did not bring the collapse of the Chinese Communist Party’s control, Vietnam followed a similar path. Economic organization is still formulated in a Stalinist 5 year plan. The economic sectors of agricultural exports and manufacturing have seen the greatest gains.

The major agricultural exports are cashew nuts, rice, and coffee. Ranked globally as number one on the former, and second in the latter two. The extensive coastline and the 80,000 fisherman employed in the fishing industry is a major source for the nation’s protein and another major export product with the USA being the leading consumer. Unfortunately, the Pacific monsoons can drastically effect these cash crops. This month, two major storms raged across Vietnam in the middle of coffee harvest season. Not only affecting the robusta coffee beans, used in producing instant coffee and its second largest cash crops, but halted work for the entire fishing fleet. The expected coffee harvest was already downgraded to 18% below last year’s level.² So critical is this export in raising hard currencies that 93% of the beans are exported.

Manufacturing industry has and is still influenced by foreign states. When the French pulled out of Indochina in 1954 the stripped all manufacturing equipment from factories in North Vietnam. In the 1970’s, Soviet Russia’s 1970’s economic assistance arrived with the command economy which attempted to develop socialist mega-projects at the expense of developing expertise. Currently, the Japanese are cooperating on transnational ventures due to Vietnam’s abundant, motivated, and inexpensive workforce. A major development which will be discussed later. The two former superpowers that fought over the political soul of the Southeast Asian peninsula have new roles. The Russians are now a major source for tourists and enjoy reunions with their former alliances. The Americans are now recipients of exported goods and the importers of fast food chains like Kentucky Fried Chicken.³ China’s industrial surge has only caused international disputes with Vietnam over ownership rights to oil deposits in the South China Sea. Once an aggressive pariah, Vietnam has ascended to membership in ASEAN and has reached an agreement in sharing development with the China and other regional states of the Spratley Islands’ petroleum reserves.

The 9% economic growth rates have trailed just behind China, but Hanoi recently downgraded this to 7% . The dependency on trade as a vehicle for economic expansion has reached phenomenal levels. The influx of foreign direct investment has raised…. living standards dramatically. Land prices have skyrocketed and inflation has outpaced GDP by 4%. A major factor in this developing nation is rising fuel costs. The government had been subsidizing gasoline prices but with this removed, prices recently surged up 36%. However, a price cap on the upper limits is enforced at a current rate of $4.35 per gallon.⁴

The explosive growth is a double edge sword. Life expectancy in 1970 was a low 49 years yet today stands at 74.⁵ With more workers reaching retirement age, mandatory retirement is age 60, inflation is eroding retirement savings.⁶ However, with 50% of the population under age 25, future taxpayers insure a healthy social security system for the near future. The economic progress is creating additional stresses on the average Vietnamese citizen. The communist party is slowly replacing the traditional family as the central focus of daily life. To wean Vietnamese society away from this historic economic unit, government planning developed many successful programs for its own and the public needs. The social security system doubles as a internal spy network.⁷ Local cadres hand deliver retirees monthly payments to check up on the elderly.⁸ Family planning has had a tremendous impact on controlling population growth through available and affordable contraceptives to over two-thirds of the population.⁹ Average children per family has dropped from seven in 1970 to a current rate of slightly over two. Papa-san will most likely be watching television in retirement rather than his grandchildren.

The daily life of the average citizen, which is 90% ethnic Vietnamese, is affected in both positive and negative aspects. After energy, the great global concern is usable fresh water. Safe water is available to over 85% of the nation.¹⁰ Literacy rates are at 90% and a 1995 government proclamation requiring all state employees under age 45 must be conversant in the English language has had an impact on more than just international relations.¹¹ Vietnam is flush with daily newspapers published in English. While an unofficial second language and 17% of the populace with internet may appear to be good for the influx of information and hopes for changing political values there is a flip side. The one-party stay heavily censors access to websites especially targeting critics of the government, expatriate political parties, and international human rights organizations.¹² But who would complain against such a regime when in the past five years unemployment has dropped from 25% to today’s 5%.¹³ Additionally, workers also have the benefit of a 5 day-40 hour work week, reduced in 1999 from the 6 day-48 hours.¹⁴

Finally, urban areas have a lower rates of air pollution than most Asian cities though the future calculations emphasize this will change without attention. The negative aspects are accepted as the status quo, mainly corruption and governmental control, which are preferred if stability is maintained. One aspect is promotion to the higher echelons of society places an emphasis on party membership or military experience with past national liberation forces over merit. Even with the food inflation rate at 26%, which would have a democratic society up in arms, protests against the regime are minimal. Vietnam is ranked 121st worst nation for corruption.¹⁵ The bureaucracy keeps a watchful eye on startups as it takes 50 days and 11 forms to open the doors of a new business.¹⁶ An additional hurdle is the 11.8% interest rate on loans.¹⁷ Previously mentioned reduced work hours are negated by the fact there are only nine holidays in Vietnam.¹⁸ If the work does not kill, then the traffic will. Government regulations to license drivers and require helmet use has failed, but as a population reducer the annually fatal accident rate is soaring at 300% per year.19 Safety organization base it on vehicle operator’s attitudes regarding safety.²⁰

One word synonymous with Southeast Asia is motor scooter, the essential heartbeat of daily living. Vietnam presently has 300 scooter operators for every one mile of paved road.²¹ The dominant form of transportation places Vietnam as the 2nd largest market. The demand, which increased 30% from last year, is being used an an opportunity to develop manufacturing.²² The market is dominated by Japanese brands assembled in Japanese funded plants by Vietnamese workers. Hanoi has allowed this to capture the knowledge and expertise in manufacturing these vehicles. Combined with investment in educating engineering students, it plans to soon have the research and development capabilities to produce and market domestic brands. Oddly, Vietnamese consumers prefer the Japanese models which are typically 60% more expensive than a Chinese import. One may surmise that the 1978 Chinese invasion is the reason enough, but most Vietnamese consumers when interviewed stated the Sino-scooters are crap.²³

The ascension as partner to the global community has raised Vietnam’s living standards but still leaves it lacking in the area human rights violations and human trafficking violations. Once seeing itself as an ideological leader in the region, the collapse of the Soviet Union and the 3 million dollars a day it was receiving, has caused this fallen domino to loose its spots in order to sustain itself. Admitted to the UN in 1977, Vietnam currently holds a seat as a non-permanent two year member on the UN Security Council until January 1st, 2009. It’s current report card shows membership in Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the World Bank, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the International Monetary Fund, the UN Development Program (UNDP) , the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Intellectual Property Organization, the Asian Development Bank, and Association of Southeast Asian Nations (SEAN). The new direction of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam can be summarized by quoting an extract from at The Party’s 10th National Congress, “Push ahead foreign economic activities, integrate more deeply and fully in global, regional and bilateral economic institutions, with national interests as the highest objective.”²⁴

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NOTES – Comprehensive Country Studies -Anthony Mrugacz

1 World Fact Book. (Washington, D.C.: The Central Intelligence Agency, 2008).

2 Bruce Meng. “Vietnam’s 2007/2008 coffee exports fall 17.5 pct.”(Alibab.com. September 24th, 2008).

3 “KFC exec speaks on the growth of fried chicken.” (Saigon Times Online. March 4th, 2006).

4 “Vietnam raises domestic fuel prices by up to 36 percent.” (International Herald Tribune July, 22nd, 2008).

5 “At a glance: Viet Nam.” (UNICEF: United Nations Population Division and United Nations Statistics Division.)

6 (UNICEF: United Nations Population Division and United Nations Statistics Division.)

7 New Law On Gender Equality Will greatly Improve Viet Nam’s Legal Regime.” (United Nations General Assembly: WOM/1593. January 17th, 2007)

8 Viet Nam Social Security. “Paying Social Security Benefits through Pay-Agents at Commune Level.”(Hanoi).

9 Dominique Marie-Annick Haughton. Health and Wealth in Vietnam, An Analysis of Household Living Standards, p.23. (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1999).

10 Data Statistics. (World Bank 2008)

11 Kate Brown. “Courses in English Flourish in Vietnam.” (International Herald Tribune, February 14th, 1995).

12 OpenNet Initiative. (Joint Project between Centre for International Studies-University of Toronto, Berkman Center for Internet & Society-Harvard Law School, Cambridge Security Programme-University of Cambridge, Internet Governance and Regulation-Oxford University, 2008).

13 World Fact Book. (Washington, D.C.: The Central Intelligence Agency, 2008).

14 Li Qi, Bill Taylor, and Stephen Frost.”Labour Relations and Regulations in Vietnam: Theory And Practice.” (City University of Hong Kong: Southeast Asia Research Centre, Working Papers No. 53-3.8, 2002).

15 Corruption Perceptions Index 2008 (Berlin: Transparency International, 2008).

16 Doing Business 2008. “Country Briefing- Vietnam.” (World Bank, 208)

17 International Monetary Fund. “International Financial Statistics.” (October 2008).

18 Neighboring Cambodia enjoys 28 governmental holidays, the USA has 10 federal holidays.

19 Joshua Jake Levine. “A Lesson In Driving.” (The Vietnam Business Journal. August 1997).

20 Only 3% of motorcycle operators wear helmets and only 50% are licensed. Kate Johnson. “Under the Wheels.” (Time Magazine, October 28th, 2002).

21 In comparison, the USA has 1.5 two-wheeled vehicles per paved mile of road. Dr. Phan Le Binh, “Statistic Data on Transport Sector in Vietnam.” (Japan International Cooperation Agency-Vietnam, March 3rd, 2008).

22 Reuters News Service. “UPDATE 1-Yamaha to boost Vietnam motorcycle output 50 pct.” (July 29th, 2007).

23 Kohei Mishima. “Motorcycle Industry in Vietnam,Thailand and Indonesia.” (Tohoku University: April 3rd, 2004).

24 Vietnam Ministry of Foreign Affairs . “Vietnam Foreign Policy.” (Hanoi: The Political Report of The Central Committee, September 28th, 2007)

My efforts are towards writing reviews and political science essays for you, the people of Earth, to read and explore on this Comprehensive Country Studies– Anthony Mrugacz webpage. One may continue enjoying this website’s efforts by receiving free updates by subscibing here. Additionally, sponsoring this unique website by a donation is also very affordable at less than ten dollars ($10.00) a year.

BIBLIOGRAPHY – Comprehensive Country Studies – Anthony Mrugacz

Binh, Dr. Phan Le, “Statistic Data on Transport Sector in Vietnam.” Japan International Cooperation Agency- Vietnam, March 3rd, 2008.

Brown, Kate. “Courses in English Flourish in Vietnam.” International Herald Tribune, February 14th, 1995.

Central Intelligence Agency. World Fact Book. Washington, D.C.: The Central Intelligence Agency, 2008.

Centre for International Studies-University of Toronto, Berkman Center for Internet & Society-Harvard Law School, Cambridge Security Programme-University of Cambridge, Internet Governance and Regulation- Oxford University. “OpenNet Initiative Project.” 2008.

Frost, Stephen, Bill Taylor, and Li Qi. ”Labour Relations and Regulations in Vietnam: Theory And Practice.” Hong Kong: City University-Southeast Asia Research Centre, Working Papers No. 53-3.8, 2002.

Haughton, Dominique Marie-Annick. Health and Wealth in Vietnam, An Analysis of Household Living Standards. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1999.

International Herald Tribune. “Vietnam raises domestic fuel prices by up to 36 percent.” July, 22nd, 2008.

International Monetary Fund. “International Financial Statistics.” October 2008.

Johnson, Kate. “Under the Wheels.”Time Magazine, October 28th, 2002.

Kohei Mishima. “Motorcycle Industry in Vietnam,Thailand and Indonesia.” Tohoku University: April 3rd, 2004.

Levine, Joshua Jake. “A Lesson In Driving.” The Vietnam Business Journal. August 1997.

Meng, Bruce. “Vietnam’s 2007/2008 coffee exports fall 17.5 pct.” Alibab.com. September 24th, 2008.

Reuters News Service. “UPDATE 1-Yamaha to boost Vietnam motorcycle output 50 pct.” July 29th, 2007.

Saigon Times Online. “KFC exec speaks on the growth of fried chicken.” March 4th, 2006.

Transparency International. “Corruption Perceptions Index 2008.” Berlin, 2008.

UNICEF. “At a glance: Viet Nam.” United Nations Population Division and United Nations Statistics Division.

United Nations. “New Law On Gender Equality Will greatly Improve Viet Nam’s Legal Regime.” United Nations General Assembly: WOM/1593. January 17th, 2007.

Vietnam Ministry of Foreign Affairs. “Vietnam Foreign Policy.” Hanoi: The Political Report of The Central Committee, September 28th, 2007.

Viet Nam Social Security Division. “Paying Social Security Benefits through Pay-Agents at Commune Level.” Hanoi.

World Bank. “Data Statistics.” 2008.

World Bank. “Doing Business 2008-Country Briefing- Vietnam, 2008.

My efforts are towards writing reviews political science for you, the people of Earth, to read and explore on this Comprehensive Country Studies – Anthony Mrugacz webpage. One may continue enjoying this website’s efforts by receiving free updates by subscibing here. Additionally, sponsoring this unique websiteby a donation is also very affordable at less than ten dollars ($10.00) a year

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